Institute of Historic Building Conservation No 129 May 2013 Scotland’s built heritage
Historic Scotlandare delighted to be hosting Metal 2013, the triennial conference of the International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation Metal Working Group. This week-long international conference on metal conservation will take place in Edinburgh, Scotland from 16th to 20th September 2013. Delegates from around the world will share presentations on the conservation and preservation of historic metal including artefacts, sculpture and structures. Tickets for the event can be purchased using our online booking facility. Please contact us with any questions or queries about the event and we will get back to you as quickly as possible. We look forward to welcoming you to Metal 2013! For more information visit www.metal2013.org METAL 2013 International Conference on Metal Conservation 16 - 20 September 2013
C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 1 Cover: The southern elevation with remodelled entrance of the restored Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, see page 14 (Photo: copyright Andrew Lee) Editorial www.ihbc.org.uk Registered as a charity in England andWales number 1061593 and in Scotland number SC041945. Company Limited by Guarantee. Registered in England number 3333780. Registered Office: 3 Stafford Road,TunbridgeWells, Kent TN2 4QZ. Officers President Trefor Thorpe email president@ihbc.org.uk Chair Jo Evans email chair@ihbc.org.uk Vice Chair Sheila Stones email vchair@ihbc.org.uk Secretary Eddie Booth email secretary@ihbc.org.uk Treasurer Richard Morrice email treasurer@ihbc.org.uk Membership Secretary Paul Butler email membership@ihbc.org.uk Education Secretary David McDonald email education@ihbc.org.uk Publicity Secretary Doug Black email publicity@ihbc.org.uk Law & Practice Coordinator vacant email law@ihbc.org.uk Director Seán O’Reilly email director@ihbc.org.uk Projects Officer Fiona Newton email projects@ihbc.org.uk Consultant Consultations Coordinator James Caird email consultations@ihbc.org.uk Membership Services Officer Carmen Moran email membershipservices@ihbc.org.uk Administration Officer Lydia Porter email admin@ihbc.org.uk Committee Chairs Policy Mike Brown email policy@ihbc.org.uk Membership & Ethics Paul Butler email membership@ihbc.org.uk Finance & Resources Richard Morrice email resources@ihbc.org.uk Education David McDonald email education@ihbc.org.uk Communications & Outreach Charles Strang email communications@ihbc.org.uk Branch Officers North Geoff UnderwoodTel 0191 433 3435 NorthWest Crispin Edwards Tel 0161 474 2620 Yorkshire David Blackburn Tel 01943 603479 West Midlands Charles Shapcott Tel 0121 7044312 East Midlands Roy Lewis Tel 01623 756623 South Julia Foster Tel 01296 585888 SouthWest JamesWebbTel 01202 732849 East Anglia Phil Godwin Tel 01263 516131 South East Sean Rix Tel 01483 523379 London JohnWebb Tel 020 8871 6645 Scotland Stuart Eydmann Tel 01506 775279 Wales Nathan Blanchard Tel 01492 583443 Northern Ireland Colin Hatrick Tel 028 9064 1126 Republic of Ireland Cormac O’Sullivan Tel 00353 5677 62907 Business Office Jubilee House, High Street, Tisbury, Wiltshire SP3 6HA England Tel 01747 873133 Fax 01747 871718 email admin@ihbc.org.uk Institute ofHistoricBuildingConservation No 129May2013 Scotland’s built heritage What’s special about Scotland? At a time when Scots are contemplating their future as a nation, we can ask: what is special about Scotland? The national identity has been shaped by, among other things, Scotland’s people and the buildings they have created: crannogs, roundhouses, brochs, wheelhouses, castles, tower houses and peel towers; palaces, churches, cathedrals and the Scots baronial style; works of some of the greatest 18th century British architects, such as Robert Adam, William Chambers, Colen Campbell and James Gibbs; Edinburgh’s new town; Glasgow’s merchant city; buildings of the industrial revolution; vernacular building from black houses to tenements; the town-making of Robert Owen and Patrick Geddes; the 19th century neoclassicism of William Henry Playfair and Alexander ‘Greek’ Thomson; the high gothic of Frederick Thomas Pilkington; the Forth Bridge and other marvels of engineering; Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow style; and some distinctive works of modernism. Scotland today is as distinctive socially, economically, politically and climatically as it ever has been. As guest commissioning editor for this Scottish themed issue of Context, Dennis Rodwell has selected a wide range of topics from the wealth of activity relating to historic buildings. Allison Borden (page 10) reports on the fate of two early 20th century reinforced-concrete buildings in Glasgow. Justin Fenton (page 14) delights in the restoration of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh (designed by Sir Robert Rowand Anderson, its rich neo- 13th-century French gothic detailing standing as a reminder of Scotland’s traditional links to continental Europe). Roger Curtis (page 17) looks at the role of older buildings in reducing resource and energy consumption. Cliff Hague (page 20) looks at the small towns that fall into the gap between Scotland’s urban and rural policy, and many of which have to cope with having lost their traditional economic base. Their strength, Hague suggests, is their diversity. Carol Cooke (page 23) explains the role of planning guidance on placemaking and design in the Scottish borders. Sarah Kettles (page 28) writes about the small town of Brechin’s use of the Heritage Lottery Fund’s Townscape Heritage Initiative and Historic Scotland’s Conservation Area Regeneration Scheme. Simon Gilmour (page 31) writes about the future of archaeology in Scotland at a time when Scottish historic environment policy is being reviewed, Historic Scotland is developing a national archaeology strategy, and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and Historic Scotland are merging. Neil Grieve (page 44) describes the role of asset transfer in tackling buildings at risk (the subject of a recent IHBC Scotland study day). Welcome to Scotland! Briefing 2 Out of Context 5 Periodically Bob Kindred 6 The writer’s voice 8 Supporting columns Allison Borden 10 Portrait of a nation Justin Fenton 14 Climate change and traditional buildings Roger Curtis 17 Scotland’s small towns Cliff Hague 20 From policy to place in the Borders Carol Cooke 23 Brechin’s route to regeneration Sarah Kettles 28 Telling Scotland’s story Simon Gilmour 31 Southern assignment Elizabeth Smith 35 President’s report 38 Director’s cut 40 Vox pop 42 Conference report: IHBC Scotland study day on asset transfer Neil Grieve 44 Book reviews 45 Products and services 49 Advertisers index 52
2 C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 Editor Rob Cowan Editorial Coordinator Fiona Newton 21 George Street, Louth, Lincolnshire LN11 9JU Tel 01507 602567 email editorial@ihbc.org.uk Editorial Board Fiona Newton (chair) Nigel Crowe (main features) Peter de Figueiredo (book reviews) Michael Taylor (main features) Rebecca Madgin Cartoons by Rob Cowan Context is distributed to all members of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation. © Institute of Historic Building Conservation 2013 ISSN 0958-2746 Publisher Published for the Institute of Historic Building Conservation by Cathedral Communications Limited, High Street, Tisbury,Wiltshire, England SP3 6HA Tel 01747 871717 Fax 01747 871718 email context@cathcomm.co.uk www.buildingconservation.com Non-member subscriptions to Context Context is available to corporate bodies at an annual subscription rate, including postage, of: United Kingdom £60.00 Elsewhere £90.00 Subscription orders, together with remittances payable to Institute of Historic Building Conservation, should be sent to the IHBC Business Office at Jubilee House, High Street, Tisbury, Wiltshire SP3 6HA. The views expressed in Context are not necessarily held by the IHBC or the publisher. Neither the publisher nor the IHBC shall be under any liability whatsoever in respect of contributed articles. We gratefully acknowledge the support of firms whose advertisements appear throughout this publication.While every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this issue of Context is current and correct, neither the IHBC nor the publisher can be held responsible for any errors or omissions which may occur. Briefing Context Copy deadlines Context is published five times a year, in March, May, July, September and November. The copy deadlines in 2013 are: July, Issue 130 17 May September, Issue 131 19 July November, Issue 132 13 September CONTEXT READER SURVEY Let us know what you think about Context. Please take a minute to fill in our survey. www.surveymonkey.com/s/ contextsurvey New lead body for Scotland Since autumn 2012, Historic Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) have been working together to create a new lead public body for the sector. Over the past six months, consultation within the sector, stakeholders, public and staff, has explored how to merge the complementary functions and services of the two organisations, and has considered which type of governance model would best safeguard and deliver these in a new body. The intention is to create a lead body responsible for investigating and recording, caring for and protecting, and sharing and celebrating the historic environment – and which enables others to do the same.The values of that new body have been scoped out.They include demonstrating passion for the historic environment, preserving the knowledge, expertise and research capabilities of its staff, working with objectivity and curatorial independence, and acting as a linchpin for cooperation and collaboration across Scotland’s heritage. During this same period, Historic Scotland has been carrying out a fundamental review of historic environment policy. The review aims to secure the optimum outcome for Scotland in terms of economic, social and cultural benefits, while continuing to protect and promote the historic environment. It aims to address how this can be done in the context of various challenges with, for example, funding and climate change, but also harnessing the opportunities technological advances can offer. The business case for the merged organisation was presented to the cabinet secretary for culture and external affairs at the end of February. Following business case approval by ministers, the process will require legislation, with a possible bill in the 2013/14 parliamentary session, and the aim of creating the new organisation by 2015/16. Both the merger process and the policy review will be seeking input from IHBC members over the coming months. Valuing the Forth Bridge Scaffolding has finally come down from the Forth Bridge, the next on the UK Tentative List for nomination as a world heritage site. A partnership management agreement is under discussion between Network Rail, Historic Scotland and the relevant local authorities, Fife and City of Edinburgh Councils. The bridge is visible from 25 kilometres across sea and, where silhouetted, from many hills in Lothian and Fife. UNESCO is moving on from thinking of a world heritage site’s buffer zone as purely protection against change, to thinking of it also as a means of engaging communities, and achieving good outcomes for the management of visitors and localities. Queensferry Business Improvement District and North Queensferry Heritage Trust already focus attention on the bridge, and want more to be done. Comparative assessment of other bridges leads to values condensed into attributes. For example, the value of displaying strength and security to recover the reputation of railway engineering from the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879 is reflected in five attributes: the wide-legged straddle of the towers; the sweeping batter of the stone piers; tubular struts strong in compression; the curved form of bottom chord (unlike other cantilever bridges) and the relatively small link spans, forming reassuring arches; and the wider central tower binding the bridge. Stakeholders drawn from the Forth Bridges Forum are considering a statement of outstanding universal value A view from the Fife tower of the Forth Rail Bridge (Crown copyright Historic Scotland)
C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 3 along these lines: ‘The Forth Bridge is in many respects unsurpassed.When opened in 1890 it had the two longest spans in the world. No other steel trussed bridge approaches that perfect balance of structural elegance and strength, nor its overall size. Superlative in its application of novel steel technologies, the Forth Bridge used and influenced engineering know-how that was international in scope. It is a globally important triumph of design, at once structural and aesthetic. Still performing as a vital UK transport artery, this icon of Scotland perfectly encapsulates 19th century belief in mankind’s ultimate ability to overcome any obstacle: the impossible could indeed be made possible.’ MarkWatson, deputy head of industrial heritage, Historic Scotland Researching energy efficiency A project funded by the European Commission is researching the energy efficiency and sustainability of European historic urban districts, and investigating measures and tools to make significant improvements while protecting their heritage value. Energy Efficiency for EU Historic Districts’ Sustainability (EFFESUS) will develop new technologies; produce a software tool to inform decisions on improvement measures; provide training and awareness activities; and demonstrate its results in real case studies in seven historic urban districts. The case studies will demonstrate the applicability of its technological developments and the suitability of its software tool. The only case study in the UK, in Glasgow, will demonstrate aerogel insulation products for use in cavities behind existing wall finishes. EFFESUS will produce the Decision Support System, a software tool to help make informed decisions about improvement measures suitable for historic urban districts.The decisionmaking will be supported by a multiscale spatial data model, a categorisation of historic buildings and urban districts, and a repository of energy efficiency retrofit solutions. The Decision Support System will balance the particular conditions of a given historic urban district with suitable measures to achieve significant energy efficiency improvements and carbon dioxide reductions. EFFESUS aims to develop and implement new and adapted technologies and systems which are cost-effective, and technically and visually suitable for use in historic buildings and urban districts.These technologies will include secondary window solutions, thermal insulating mortars and radiant reflective coatings, all of which will be suitable for use with historic building fabric; intelligent energy management systems, adapted particularly for historic buildings; and systems for energy generation from renewable sources suitable for installation within historic urban districts. The project, involving 23 partners from 13 European countries, will run until 2016. Tchoban collection at the Soane Sir John Soane’s Museum is showing a selection of the highlights from the Europe’s newest architectural museum, the Tchoban Foundation, Museum für Architekturzeichnung, in Berlin.The exhibition, ‘Northern Vision: master drawings from the Tchoban Foundation’ runs from 21 June to 28 September. The exhibition will focus on works by architects rarely seen in British collections, mainly by German and Russian draughtsmen, emphasising the strong cultural and historical links between these two countries. The drawings, which form part of the collection of the Berlin-based Russian architect Sergei Tchoban, range in date from the late 16th century to modernist work. Russia’s turbulent 20th-century history will be vividly represented by a series of drawings which chart the rise of avant-garde, revolutionary architectural styles and their subsequent replacement with a monumental, classicising socialist realist architecture. The rejection of the avant-garde is marked by Boris Iofan’s draft design for the Palace of the Soviets, Moscow. Dating to 1931–33, Iofan’s soaring socialist realist neoclassical skyscraper, topped by a colossal statue of Lenin, would have been the tallest building in the world at the time, had it been built. The draft design for this extraordinary structure, at nearly two metres square, will be one of the largest architectural drawings ever shown at Sir John Soane’s Museum. Sergei Tchoban, himself a passionate draughtsman, founded the Tchoban Foundation in 2009 to preserve and promote classical architectural drawing in the 21st century, in which hand-drawn architecture has been overtaken by digital alternatives. ‘Today a hand-drawing is never required for the realisation of an airport, an item of designer furniture, a football stadium or a facade,’ Tchoban says. ‘We can not afford to lose such a powerful medium if today’s architecture is to endure like its forebears in antiquity. The drama and emotion of the drawing can convey a feeling and a vision for a building that will persuade and inspire clients and lovers of art and architecture for centuries to come.’ Draft design for the Palace of the Soviets (1931–33) by Boris Iofan (Copyright:Tchoban Foundation) Pompeii and Herculaneum GrahamTite writes: Soon after the first discoveries at Herculaneum of the The redevelopment of the Grade I listed Kings Cross Station (redevelopment architect John McAslan + Partners) and the restoration of HoraceWalpole’s Strawberry Hill (restoration architect Peter Inskip + Peter Jenkins Architects) have won Europa Nostra awards for conservation. At Kings Cross, the train sheds and eastern and western ranges have been adapted and re-used, the station’s previously obscured Grade I listed proto-modern façade (1852) restored, and a new western concourse (pictured) has been designed as the centrepiece of the project.
4 C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 buried buildings and their contents, the astonishing finds were welcomed in these words: ‘What a great adventure for our times it is to discover not just some ancient monument or other, but a city… by excavating and leaving everything in its place, the city would become an unequalled museum.’ The writer was Scipione Maffei of Verona (1675–1755, dramatist, essayist and antiquarian). His words date to 1748, 10 years after the first revelations had been achieved beneath the fields in the shadow of Vesuvius. Maffei’s own city of Verona, situated hundreds of miles to the north of the Bay of Naples, has an abundance of Roman imperial buildings, including its famous amphitheatre of ad30. Maffei produced his own account of these, and of monuments in Provence, as the result of his early travels. But he can dismiss the ruins he knew as ‘just some monument or other’. Modern Rome and the arc of sites from the Dalmatian coast to Spain and crossing Italy were full of ‘monuments’ like these. ‘The unequalled museum’ that Maffei instinctively sensed in the making is what Pompeii would eventually produce: a complete city of streets, graveyards, triumphal arches, houses with domestic shrines, temples and civic centres. The eruption had stopped life in Herculaneum and Pompeii virtually in an instant during the fatal time on 24 August, ad79, as the cities recovered from a recent earthquake. Almost 17 centuries would pass before time resumed there with the first systematic excavations. Not even an exhibition as good as the British Museum’s ‘Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum’ can replace the sensation of a first visit to either site. After walking the streets and visiting the houses of the first century you are ready to take a trip into Naples to see the transported objects and architectural fragments in the collections of the Museo Nazionale – although a good overnight rest and several glasses of Falanghina or Falerno are recommended in between. Most notable in this exhibition, apart from its display of recently excavated objects, are the effects of the rise of multi-cultural studies. Archaeology no longer occupies a separate niche from literature, social history, art history or any other of the studies that can be of relevance to topics such as the life and beliefs of the Romans. So we see how daily, provincial affairs were being conducted on the shores of the Bay of Naples, despite the recent earthquake. The reign of Vespasian was giving way to that of Titus, his son, commanding the empire at the time of the disaster. In those same years the greatest architectural enterprise was under way: the Colosseum was virtually complete after 10 years of work when Vesuvius erupted. We are shown at the British Museum how the citizens lived, traded, cooked, kept their gardens, took their meals, made love, went to the lavatory and slept, and recorded much of this in their works of art and in paintings on the walls of their houses. Apart from the now-inevitable audiovisual presentations, the new show has much else that is novel. In particular it displays whole murals brought from Naples with other large bronze and marble statues. There is dignity and beauty in these to act as an antidote to the effects of viewing a terracotta penis or the notorious marble ‘Pan and She-goat’. A prize exhibit is the large bronze ‘Dancer’, an archaic-style Greek figure whose simple drapery folds make the turbulence of later drapery styles seem superfluous. The story of Pompeii and Herculanaeum contains within it all the lessons about our rediscovery of the ancient world and how it has been written-up, conserved and displayed over a span of four centuries. In looking at these places and these works of art it is ourselves that we see, as well as the ancient faces that gaze back at us from the wall paintings and portrait sculptures. Curators of the sites down the rail line from Naples always remind us that the scavi are living places that need to be lit, drained, weeded and patrolled for security. The visitors can dine here and use the restrooms. All of this takes place within the comuni of modern Pompei and Resina, the larger modern settlement that includes Ercolano and reverted to the ancient name in 1969. The excavations and the work of conservation go ahead against this background of public scrutiny and a massive tourist presence. Graham Tite is a conservation officer with BEAMS, Hertford.‘Life and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum’ is at the British Museum until 29 September 2013. The publication with the same name, by Paul Roberts, is published by the museum at £25 paperback (320 pages, all colour, ISBN 978 0 7141 2282 3). A young couple shown in a wall-painting from the buried city of Pompeii. (Photo: Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei/Trustees of the British Museum)
C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 5 ‘PRESERVING the façade and not the building is like saving the Halloween mask and throwing away the person.’ Don Rypkema, quoted by Hank Dittmar (@HankDittmar) on Twitter ‘THE OLD building was to be obliterated – collateral damage of a design that shows no interest or ability in adapting itself to anything around it. The new design finds room for a large atrium and external plaza, but not for the listed building. ‘When they first saw the design the council’s planning officers called it “unacceptable”, “alien” and “ungainly”, “with an overly-complex external envelope that has no relationship with its setting”. They opposed “the loss of an important Grade II listed building” that is “an irreplaceable resource”. The surviving Victorian wing of the hospital “would appear weak and out of place against the backdrop of a new building”. ‘Council officials have to use measured terms, so this was planner speak for “unmitigatedly revolting and cack-handed”.’ Rowan Moore writing in the Observer about the proposed demolition of the Edwardian wing of the Jessop Hospital in Sheffield ‘ACROSS the city, in its gilt-edged patches – Kensington, Chelsea, Belgravia,Westminster and Notting Hill – London’s terraced houses are being heightened, deepened, lengthened and widened to accommodate the yawning pockets of the international billionaire... The trouble is, the new rich really want the huge, swanky flats you get in Manhattan or Paris. ‘The ideal is a high, wide, empty shelf, painted white — an aircraft hangar behind a period facade, all the better to display wall-sized slabs of modern art... These overblown expansions go right against a 400-year tradition of the London rich living happily in terraced houses. ‘It always used to be a rather good, strangely British thing that toffs lived in terraced houses like everyone else – albeit bigger terraced houses in smarter areas... Terraced houses made for pretty, flexible housing that slotted easily into any town, for any resident; a triumph of domestic architecture that could be connected in long, snaking lines, or moulded into crescents, squares and circuses.’ Harry Mount writing in the Spectator ‘HOW CAN IT be that we’ve arrived at this strange impasse, where, instead of being citizens of a noble acropolis presided over by a genius loci, we seem the short-let tenants of a sandpit played in by a giant (and not especially imaginative) toddler?’ Will Self writing about the Shard in BBC News Magazine ‘ACCORDIA is new and we haven’t reached the point where people have to replace windows and doors, but when we get to that point it is possible people will compromise the look and go for change if there is no guidance and no legislation. ‘The whole thing hangs together because of its homogeneity.We are keen to get in there before damage is done.’ Architect and resident Bruce Stewart quoted by Merlin Fulcher in the Architects’ Journal. Residents of Stirling Prize-winning Accordia in Cambridge want the housing development to be listed and declared a conservation area. The campaign is led by owners of Accordia’s million pound properties. They claim that private owners’ extensions and unsympathetic replacement of materials by social housing residents risk irreversibly damaging the development’s appearance. ‘ENGLISH Heritage together with UNESCO put up massive obstacles to prevent this development proposal getting permission. Their studies and arguments have all collapsed and rightly so, as it’s simply not right to expect derelict parts of cities with such a rich history to stand still and be fossilised.’ Lindsey Ashworth, development director of Peel Holdings, welcoming communities secretary Eric Pickles’ decision not to call in Liverpool City Council’s decision to grant permission for the LiverpoolWaters development (quoted by Colin Marrs in Planning). ‘A QUICK glance at the new proposals for the Festival Wing of the Southbank Centre, and it all seems pretty standard for 21st century architecture. Surfaces are replete with grass and shrubs, crowds of happy shoppers waft everywhere, the inevitable child with balloons is having a smashing day out. ‘But a closer look shows that the centre is set to be dwarfed by a glassy extension rising high above its current silhouette.What other historically important work of British architecture would be treated in such a way?... In the end it comes down to brutalism – still the most reviled mode of building in Britain.’ Douglas Murphy writing in the Guardian Accordia in Cambridge: architects and some residents want the development to be listed.
6 C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 Periodically The highlight of the crop of journals received after Christmas was undoubtedly the latest edition of the Association of Preservation Technology bulletin, the Journal of Preservation Technology (Vol XLIII, No 4 2012). Readers may recall that in the preceding issue the development of cast-iron-plate lighthouses on the eastern seaboard of the USA had been explored, and the latest issue has a related, specific theme of ‘Iron and Steel’. Originating from symposia held by the Delaware Valley Chapter of the APT, this issue, edited by Richard Ortega and Justin Spivey, begins with a discussion of the fundamental differences between iron and steel. The authors refer to countless real-time experiments in material durability and the difficulty in aggregating the results into useful knowledge. Frequently the authors found under-utilised potential for lessons to be learned from old buildings, coupled with an absence of consideration of durability on university steel-design courses, despite a century’s-worth of examples to inform the discussion. ‘As the variety of materials used in construction increases, the cycle from introduction to deterioration and obsolescence also accelerates, expanding the number and difficulty of challenges ahead for historic preservation.’ In the article ‘Metallurgy 101’, Alan Pense attempts to give an insight into how metallurgists see the compositional differences of constructional metals at the molecular level and determine their properties. He reviews the mechanical characteristics of iron-based materials from the earliest man-made form, wrought iron (predominant in the 19th century); cast iron, which was and still is used in historic structures because of low cost and ease of manufacture; through to steels, which now dominate most structural usage. Donald Friedman’s article ‘Hidden Intricacies: the development of modern building skeletons’ shows that an analysis of structural function can provide an insight into the technological development of the skeleton steel frame. The author proposes a typology based on the structural functions of masonry and iron or steel framing. He remarks that the development of frame technology entailed a series of individual changes in the physical construction of buildings, each more sophisticated than the last in terms of structural theory; each more subtle than the last in terms of physical presence; and each change less visible than the one before. This is made plain by excellent illustrations. The value of Richard Ortega’s article on ‘Masonry Cladding of Iron- and Steel-Frame Buildings, 1880–1940: a destructive relationship’ is the clarity with which he sets out the misconceptions concerning the use of materials and technology, illustrated by quotes from construction publications from the 1890s through to the 1930s; a straightforward summary of the destructive consequences; and three practical examples from interwar buildings. Ortega concludes that the prognosis for masonry-clad steel buildings is bleak. Pre-second-worldwar buildings have incipient problems of larger scale (and there are more of them) than buildings of any earlier eras. The range of remedies is limited. It needs to be met by a better historical understanding of the construction, more information on the metals used in different eras, more understanding of standardised construction of masonryclad steel structures, better diagnosis and a better range of interventions. That is a pretty tall order. Stephen Kelley, Matthew Novesky and Gregory Dowell tie the historical strands of the preceding papers into an article on ‘The Potential for Application of Cathodic Protection in Masonry-Clad, Steel-Frame Buildings’. The title is relatively self-explanatory. The final two articles deal with rather more esoteric conservation issues. Joseph Sembrat, Justine Bello and Patricia Miller provide a case study of the conservation of a large section of the recovered hull of the RMS Titanic. Donald Sayenga provides an international survey of how wroughtiron wire cables were developed and used in structures, particularly bridges, between 1816 and 1883, and explains the critical differences from the steel wire that supplanted wrought-iron. C20, the magazine of the Twentieth Century Society, is noteworthy for its high production values. No 1 2013 contains much of interest, particularly new perspectives on three large-scale schemes for the post-war redevelopment
C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 7 of the City of London. One of these is the network of high-level walkways that segregate pedestrians from vehicles around LondonWall. Ponding from neglected drainage in one picture makes the walkway look more like a reflecting pool. The network evolved over 15 years from 1962 to 1976. Catherine Croft makes the point that these increasingly deserted, windswept and fragmentary spaces could be adapted (with some imaginative planning and planting) like the High Line in NewYork, to become a beautiful and better-used landscaped amenity. Prominence is also given to the recent sensitive refurbishment of the Grade II Golden Lane Leisure Centre, showing that this part of Chamberlain, Powell and Bon’s 1963 complex has a new glamour it might not originally have possessed. The beautifully executed recent work by Cartwright Pickard was informed by the management guidelines for the estate’s listed buildings. Life in one of the top-floor flats in the Barbican is described and illustrated by artist John McLean. As Croft emphasises, these compact, well-planned units are not just for architecture enthusiasts. She illustrates that the reputations of some postwar buildings, once regarded with embarrassment, do change, often for the better and often much faster than might be expected. Also worth noting is an article on a large but discreet unlisted 1937 art deco block of 500 flats, Russell Court in Bloomsbury. Described as contributing positively to the Camden Conservation Area, it still has almost all of its original small-paned metal casement windows intact. In 1974 the freeholder went bankrupt, leaving nearly 180 flats empty. This prompted Camden to threaten to compulsorily purchase it, only for the leaseholders eventually to become their own landlords. It is to be hoped that this will guarantee a unified approach to future refurbishment. Beyond the London focus, other articles look at the artist Victor Pasmore’s work from 1955 at Peterlee new town; the loss of the fine art deco/ international style IMCO commercial laundry building (1937–1979) in Dublin; and the demolition of Owen Luder’s 29 storey Derwent Tower, Gateshead (the Dunston Rocket, with fins but no nose-cone), completed only in 1971. As the article pithily states: ‘Owen Luder is getting used to having his buildings destroyed: four of his 1960s buildings have now been demolished.’ Recent issues of The Institution of Civil Engineers Proceedings on Engineering History and Heritage have had a more international perspective than the current issue (Vol 166, Issue eh1, February 2013), which may hold more interest for UK readers. This one kicks off with a paper by Timothy Peters and Stephen Brown, both of Birmingham University, reprising the life, training and career of canal engineer Arthur Brome Wilson (1866–1955). The paper focuses in particular on the extensive and well-documented 1901–5 repairs to the Thames-Severn Canal in Gloucestershire.Wilson pioneered the use of concrete for lining canal tunnels. This was particularly important for the Sapperton Tunnel, where challenging geological problems had previously resulted in extensive leakages. The paper demonstrates the extent of the research necessary to document the life of a little-known engineer working in England at the turn of the 19th century. The Country House Technology Project at the University of Leicester is highlighting the general trends in the speed with which technical innovations were introduced in the 19th century. The trends are explained by Marilyn Palmer and Ian West. Some of the findings are helping to inform changes in the presentation of the buildings to the visiting public. Owners had sought to improve the comfort and efficient running in the 18th century, but it was in the 19th century that significant technological advances were made. Palmer’s and West’s paper looks in detail at some of the aspects first identified by Mark Girouard’s two seminal books of the late 1970s, and highlights aspects of comfort and convenience related to water supply and sanitation, lighting, heating and communications (such as electric bells). Another paper worth highlighting deals with the fate of medieval English bridges since 1770. David Harrison states that only about 100 major medieval bridges still survive, although no accurate survey has yet been undertaken. Eighty per cent of them were demolished between 1770 and 1830 as a consequence of poor condition and inadequacy for wheeled transport. The author argues that they might have been repaired and widened. Only from the 1870s did the option to preserve and restore them gain ground. This paper is a nicely illustrated and useful primer on the subject. Two other items covered in the issue include a comparative analysis by two Belgian PhD students,Willemijne Linssen and Pieter Raymaekers, of engineering institutions in Belgium and Britain in the 19th century; and a description of the collaboration between American and Greek engineers on the 1920s Marathon dam, built by American contactors to provide a more reliable water supply for Athens. Sustainability issues feature strongly in January issue of Natural Stone Specialist, particularly in promoting stone as a sustainable building product and on the need for the industry to fully embrace its environmental and ethical responsibilities. Seven different standards and certification labels developed to help demonstrate sustainability credentials are outlined, with particular emphasis on ‘responsible sourcing’ and the application of BES 6001. This issue also highlights an important new source of regional stone with the recent opening of the Blisworth limestone quarry near Peterborough. This stone was used at Lyveden New Bield, the house commenced by Sir Thomas Tresham in 1596 (but quickly abandoned) and now maintained as a ruin by the National Trust. Although the stone has always been available on a small scale in East Northamptonshire for listed building work, the new quarry should ensure larger and more consistent supplies for conservation projects. The principal article in the February issue of Natural Stone Specialist is a progress report on the five-year, £20 million repair project of the east front of York Minster, including major
8 C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 restoration work to the stone tracery of the huge Great East Window, with its 145 stained-glass window lights. Work so far completed was judged ‘exemplary’ in the craftsmanship category of the National Stone Awards in 2012. The scheme to improve public accessibility to the minster is explained, as is the tension between the masons, the Fabric Advisory Board, the Cathedral Fabric Commission, English Heritage and the SPAB over retention or replacement of original fabric. The approach to the external cleaning is also described. TheVictorian (No 42, March 2013) has a timely feature on the threat to public libraries. Christopher Costelloe highlights the cultural importance of the great flowering of public buildings in the late-Victorian and Edwardian period, as philanthropy, increasing social awareness and the rise of local government combined to create a great architectural legacy. Libraries, however, are one of the easiest public services to cut, literacy and education being intangible social matters. Not so the buildings, where public expenditure cuts are leaving many fine buildings empty. Simon Pepper describes the impact of the original 19th-century benefactions on the library system. Ken Worpole considers how library architecture is responding to new patterns of use and funding. While this is encouraging, a photo essay by John Tiernan graphically demonstrates the very variable state of the Victorian libraries of Liverpool, some splendidly refurbished like the Grade II* Central Library, but others vacant and decaying. Bob Kindred MBE From the preface to Stones of Venice by John Ruskin, 1851 When I planned the work, I had materials by me, collected at different times of sojourn in Venice during the last 17 years, which it seemed to me might be arranged with little difficulty, and which I believe to be of value as illustrating the history of Southern Gothic. Requiring, however, some clearer assurance respecting certain points of chronology, I went to Venice finally in the autumn of 1849, not doubting but that the dates of the principal edifices of the ancient city were either ascertained, or ascertainable without extraordinary research. To my consternation, I found that the Venetian antiquaries were not agreed within a century as to the date of the building of the façades of the Ducal Palace, and that nothing was known of any other civil edifice of the early city, except that at some time or other it had been fitted up for somebody’s reception, and been thereupon fresh painted. Every date in question was determinable only by internal evidence, and it became necessary for me to examine not only every one of the older palaces, stone by stone, but every fragment throughout the city which afforded any clue to the formation of its styles. This I did as well as I could, and I believe there will be found, in the following pages, the only existing account of the details of early Venetian architecture on which dependence can be placed, as far as it goes. I do not care to point out the deficiencies of other works on this subject; the reader will find, if he examines them, either that the buildings to which I shall specially direct his attention have been hitherto undescribed, or else that there are great discrepancies between previous descriptions and mine: for which discrepancies I may be permitted to give this single and sufficient reason, that my account of every building is based on personal examination and measurement of it, and that my taking the pains so to examine what I had to describe, was a subject of grave surprise to my Italian friends. The work of the Marchese Selvatico is, however, to be distinguished with respect; it is clear in arrangement, and full of useful, though vague, information; and I have found cause to adopt, in great measure, its views of the chronological succession of the edifices of Venice. I shall have cause hereafter to quarrel with it on other grounds, but not without expression of gratitude for the assistance it has given me. Fontana’s Fabbriche di Venezia is also historically valuable, but does not attempt to give architectural detail. Cicognara, as it is now generally known, is so inaccurate as hardly to deserve mention. Indeed, it is not easy to be accurate in an account of anything, however simple. Zoologists often disagree in their descriptions of the curve of a shell, or the plumage of a bird, though they may lay their specimen on the table, and examine it at their leisure; how much greater becomes the likelihood of error in the description of things which must be in many parts observed from a distance, or under unfavourable circumstances of light and shade; and of which many of the distinctive features have been worn away by time. I believe few people have any idea of the cost of truth in these things; of the expenditure of time necessary to make sure of the simplest facts, and of the strange way in which separate observations will sometimes falsify each other, incapable of reconcilement, owing to some imperceptible inadvertency. I am ashamed of the number of times in which I have had to say, in the following pages, ‘I am not sure’, and I claim for them no authority, as if they were thoroughly sifted from error, even in what they more confidently state. Only, as far as my time, and strength, and mind served me, I have endeavoured down to the smallest matters, to ascertain and speak the truth.
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10 C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 Supporting Columns How the Hennebique crumbles Early 20th century reinforced-concrete buildings show what was possible with the new material, but two in Glasgow are suffering from severe problems of deterioration. Allison Borden writes: Reinforced concrete buildings using patented systems were built prior to the introduction of codes or standards for their construction. Although there was some understanding of quality issues, the lack of understanding of the chemistry of this relatively new material resulted in decisions that eventually would make these buildings deteriorate. Concrete buildings in Britain in the mid-to-late 19th century were typically constructed of mass concrete or concrete block. Mass-concrete construction techniques were similar to those used for rammed-earth buildings. Concrete block utilised construction techniques similar to those used for masonry and brick structures. The former Reformed Presbyterian Church in Loanhead, Midlothian (1875) is built of concrete block. During this period concrete was also being used as a subsidiary material to iron and steel in ‘fireproof’ flooring systems. In these systems iron and, later, rolled-steel joists were encased in concrete or supported a layer of concrete breeze, a blend of concrete and ash, which was sometimes reinforced. In buildings with these flooring systems, their steel frames and load-bearing walls carried the loads.The system developed by Stuart’s Granolithic Stone Company of Edinburgh was used in Jenners on Princes Street (1893–5) and the Scotsman Hotel on North Bridge (1899–1902), both in Edinburgh. Concrete is a poor conductor of heat, which makes it an excellent insulator. It is not good with tensile stress, but it has great compressive strength (the ability to resist crushing under heavy weight). Steel has high tensile strength, but its high conductivity means that it can twist and collapse in extreme heat. Reinforced concrete, which is concrete with steel embedded within it before hardening, capitalises on the merits of each material and to some extent overcomes their individual weaknesses. The ingredients in reinforced concrete include Portland cement, which hardens when mixed with water and binds the mix together, aggregate (fine aggregate, usually sand, and coarse aggregate, typically crushed stone or gravel) to bulk up the mix, and the reinforcement. Forces are transferred between the steel and the concrete through the adhesion of the cement to the surface of the reinforcement. Reinforcement in the mid-19th century was typically wrought iron. By the 1880s steel was substituted for iron. Four patents for reinforced concrete were issued between 1854 and 1867.The earliest of these was for iron reinforcement (Wilkinson) and the last for a flooring system (HYB Scott).¹ Early reinforced-concrete buildings copied postand-beam construction techniques used for iron- and steel-framed buildings, which followed from concrete being used as a subsidiary material in ‘fireproof’ flooring systems. It was not until 1870 that reinforced concrete was used for frames and walls. Most of the reinforcedconcrete buildings from the 1850s up to the first world war were constructed using proprietary technologies patented and publicised in the UK by foreign innovators. These early examples of reinforced-concrete buildings were not subject to strict regulation, as the 1909 revision to the London Building Act 1894 was the first code to address reinforced concrete. In 1909, Marsh The Lion Chambers looking south east. All photos are by the author. SentinelWorks looking north west
C O N T E X T 1 2 9 : M A Y 2 0 1 3 11 Scotland’s built heritage built heritage Scotland’s Scotland’s built her Scotland’s built heritag ld’s built heritage Sc Scotland’s built he and Dunn noted that the permission of the Dean of Guild was required in order to construct a building in Scotland; however, there were no regulations regarding the thickness of walls or the material of which they were to be built.² In 1915 London County Council introduced reinforced-concrete regulations.There were no standards or regulations governing reinforced-concrete construction outside of London, and there was no British Standard for concrete until 1920. The lack of standards was accompanied by a limited level of understanding of what was required to ensure quality, including appropriate materials to use for aggregate, the percentage of water needed in the mix, proper placement of the reinforcing steel and the necessity for ramming the concrete to force out trapped air and excess water in the mix. Publications by Marsh (1904), Stuart’s Granolithic (1905–7) and Coignet (1910) all misrepresented the material as impermeable, almost indestructible and maintenance-free. This lack of understanding of the chemistry of the material would lead to decay and conservation issues. Six reinforced-concrete structural systems were in use in Scotland between 1900 and 1920: those of Coignet, Considère, Hennebique, Patent Indented Steel Bar Company (Indented Bar), Trussed Concrete Steel Company (Kahn System) and EPWells. In 1855, Coignet received the earliest UK patent for reinforced concrete and opened a London office in 1904. Hennebique took out patents in 1870, 1892 and 1897; however, he introduced his system to the UK earlier than Coignet, through his agent LG Mouchel in 1897. Hennebique also beat Coignet to London, opening an office there in 1900. From 1902 to 1904, Hennebique opened branch offices and granted licences to contractors throughout England and Scotland. His Glasgow branch office opened in 1904. Considère obtained a UK patent in 1902,Trussed Concrete Steel Company (Kahn) took out patents in 1903 and 1906, and Patent Indented Steel Bar Company (Indented Bar) and EPWells followed. Over 70 per cent of the Scottish buildings constructed using patented systems were built using the Hennebique system. Hennebique and his licensees out-competed the other firms active in the British market due to his networks and his vigorous defence of patents through litigation. Two Category A-listed buildings in Glasgow, the Sentinel Works (1903–4) at 61–89 Jessie Street and the Lion Chambers (1904–7) at 170–172 Hope Street, were built using the Hennebique system. According to its listing documents, the SentinelWorks (1903–4) is the first fully reinforced building in Scotland.The architectural drawings for the building show no internal columns, with all loads carried by the structural frame.The frame is infilled with concrete panel walls and finished with a 10mm-thick coat of cement render. The Lion Chambers’ drawings show walls and floors 100mm thick, the floors supported by 21 columns, 330mm tapering to 200mm square.The exterior surfaces were rendered in Portland cement mortar. Due to deterioration they were wrapped in polyester mesh in 2002. These two buildings illustrate defects common to early 20th century reinforced concrete buildings. Both have porous concrete caused by adding too much water to the mix, allowing too little curing time and improperly compacting the concrete. (This was carried out by hand prior to 1914. It did not effectively drive out trapped air and/or bring surplus water to the surface where it could evaporate). Proper compaction also is very difficult to achieve with such low cover for the reinforcement. Water is able to percolate through the window cills at the SentinelWorks. Both buildings also have reactive concrete, as inappropriate aggregates were used that introduced salts and industrial waste, such as clinker and blast furnace slag, into the mix. Permeability of the concrete, poor choice of aggregates and improper placement of the reinforcing bars mean that corrosion of the reinforcement can be triggered more easily. Concrete contains moisture and calcium hydroxide within its pores, which provides an alkaline environment for the steel, protecting it from corrosion. Atmospheric Damage at Sentinel Works due to removal of a bracket for a downpipe The friable condition of the concrete
www.ihbc.org.ukRkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy MjgyMjA=