stood the test of time: the concrete was poorly mixed and compacted, leading to localised admixtures of salt, porosity, and subsequent decay of the inadequate covering to reinforcing rods. Chunks of cladding spall away as the rods rust. This effect, compounded by a lacklustre maintenance programme by the local authority, was the cause of the building being vacated, standing empty for several years during which time it was under serious threat of demolition, despite its listed status. Listing and the eventual sale of the block to a private developer for refurbishment have pulled it back from the brink, and an extensive programme of concrete repair is underway at the time of writing. Patch repairs of the original raw concrete finish, which is to receive a protective coating, is a necessary compromise in securing the future stability of the fabric and enabling renewed use. Functionalsuccess Although post-war f1atted blocks were initially fully occupied by those displaced from the 'slums' they replaced, physical deterioration led to a process described in detail by Anne Power and other commentators; in a nutshell: abandonment by the more economically successful; creation of high void levels leading to 'hard to let' areas which, with continuing pressure for social housing in the 1970s and 1980s, were filled with the most vulnerable, socially and economically powerless families. Voids and failure to collect rent arrears lessened income for routine maintenance or improvements to estates, thus fuelling the conditions that had caused their unpopularity in first place. Created in the belief that they would let new communities develop and grow, Modern Movement public housing had, in fact, been instrumental in dispersing localised, close knit communities, relying on inter-personal relationships, while ensuring that new relationships had little opportunity to be established. Insecurity and discontent were often manifested in an unfriendly and vandalised environment. In the 1970s Trellick Tower (Fig 2) went through a pronounced phase of antisocial and criminal behaviour including vandalism, arson, physical intimidation, even attack, of residents, and regular burglary of f1ats. In addition to attempts to introduce effective security measures, the borough introduced a new lettings policy, under which only those who wished to be were housed in the block. The result was the creation of a more stable community, who want to live in the Tower, and a drastic reduction in crime and abuse against people and property. This illustrates that the mitigation of 22 Fig. 2. TrellickTower,listedat theendof 1998, ErnoGoldfinger'stourdeforce. social problems in a block requires a number of prerequisites to succeed, prime among which are development of a sense of community and removal of fear by the installation of effective security measures. Considerable involvement, too, is required on the part of key members of the local community, involved in the running of the block itself or in the mechanisms of the Tenants' Management Organisation (TMO)which runs public housing in the borough. Setting Modern movement housing blocks and estates were intended to stand proud from the older surrounding townscape and, indeed, succeed in this admirably (Fig 3). In a modern, heterogeneous and robust city, theirs can be a positive impact-both Balfron and Trellick Towers lend distinction to areas generally characterised by less visually stimulating modern blocks, while Keeling House stands out in worthy contrast to older patches of townscape. On the other hand, their immediate surroundings-subsidiary structures or open areas originally intended for recreation and socialisation-may provide particular problems with implications for the setting of the block or blocks. Initiatives resorted to in non-listed estates include demolition of structures or enabling developments on open spaces. For Balfron Tower, associated blocks by Gold finger and open estate land relating to them have been incluclecl in a conservation area intended to protect the setting of the I isted block. ForTrellick Tower and Keeling House, si i11 ilar measures are under active consideration, subject to consultation with affected parties. Funding The owners of these blocks - normally local housing authorities-are famously hard pressed for funds, which, often taken with a legacy of unsystematic maintenance over a long period, may lead to the stockpiling of problems. In the case ofTrellickTower, considerable investment has been made by the borough and the TMO to achieve its currently popular and successful status. Keeling House, meanwhile, proved beyond the means of the local authority, and was sold on to a new, private owner, which is now investing in its refurbishment for sale of the flats on the private market. For Balfron Tower, yet another course of action is being pursued: the recent award of a Townscape Heritage Initiative grant scheme from the Heritage Lottery Fund is to be matched by the local housing authority to create a fund of up to £2.4 million to secure changes to the fabric of the block and facilities of the Brownfield Estate conservation area in which it stands. Thefuture Listed Modern Movement blocks of social housing illustrate the perennial concern of retaining I isted buildings in beneficial use as a means of securing their continued existence. In this case the housing must evolve to meet the new standards and demands of a changed society, and provide appropriate, attractive, successful dwellings. This will inevitably present the landlord/owner with a significant financial commitment. There is no quibble about the good standard of accommodation generally provided inside these blocks, in f1ats which often enjoy the advantages of good space standards, good proportions, favourable orientation, generous balconies, and large windows. Once crucial issues such as security within the block and establishment of an appropriate lettings policies have been addressed, these advantages can be appreciated to the full by its residents. With the deterioration of a block's physical condition comes an increased threat of demolition, and with that a diminishing chance of retaining a social housing use: when Keeling House was at its nadir, the dependence on external grant funding for repairs was so high that no viable rescue package could be drawn up which retained a social housing use. With the involvement of private finance - aimed ultimately at securing a satisfactory financial return on the project- comes increasing pressure for change in the intensity of use and to the fabric of the building. This has been Context65 March2000 i
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